Aptima’s CTA Resource Web Site. A comprehensive resource for CTA techniques. Highlights includes a library of CTA papers, a table of CTA methods, regular online seminars given by leaders in the field, and a CTA e-Magazine.

Alm, I. Cognitive Tasks: A Meta Analysis of Methods. FOA Report No C 500985.5, Sundbyberg, Sweden, National Defense Research Establishment, Department of Human Studies (1992). Describes GEMS and HTA in some detail.

Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. A compilation of papers on many CTA methods by leaders in the field.

Merkelbach, E. J. H. M. & Schraagen, J. M. C. A Framework for the Analysis of Cognitive Tasks. TNO Human Factors Research Institute, Report No TNO-TM 1994 B-13 (1994). Describes a framework for conducting CTA using a combination of Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA), Knowledge Analysis and Documentation System (KADS), and GOMS.

Gordon, S. E. & Gill, R. T. Cognitive Task Analysis. In C.E. Zsambok & G. Klein, Eds. Naturalistic Decision Making. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1997. 131-140. Provides an overview of CTA techniques, with brief descriptions of Concept Mapping, COGNET, Conceptual Graph Analysis, and PARI. 

Gordan, T. R., Coovert, M. D., Riddle, D. L, & Miles, D. E. "Classifying C2 Decision Making Jobs Using Cognitive Task Analysis and Verbal Protocol Analysis." In Proceedings of the 6th International Command and Control Research Technology Symposium (2001). CTA and verbal protocol analysis are used to analyze AWACS Weapons Director teams. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Klein Associates Home Page. A company founded by naturalistic decision making guru Gary Klein. Has information on ACTA, ACTA software, ACTA training courses, the Critical Decision Method, and studies of naturalistic decision making.

Davison, H. Cognitive Task Analysis: Current Research.  Power Point Presentation (46 slides).  Provides an overview of cognitive task analysis techniques, focusing specifically on ACTA and HTA. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Eddy, M.F., Kribs, H.D., & Cowen, M.B. Cognitive and Behavioral Task Implications for Three-Dimensional Displays Used in Combat Information/Direction Centers. SPAWAR Systems Center, Technical Report 1792 (1999). ACTA is used to determine whether tactical information should be displayed in 3D to improve battlespace situation awareness. [View or Download: Local Copy]

Hardinge, N. Cognitive Task Analysis of Decision Strategies of Submarine Sonar and Target Motion Analysis Operators: Phase 1. Office of Naval Research, Final Technical Report, Contract No. N00014-99-1044 (2000). The ACTA method is applied to the analysis of decision strategies of submarine sonar and target motion analysts.  [View or Download: Local Copy]

Militello, L. G. & Hutton, R. J.B. "Applied Cognitive Task Analysis (ACTA): A Practitioner's Toolkit for Understanding Cognitive Task Demands." Ergonomics Vol 41.11 (1998): 1618-1641. A fairly detailed description of the ACTA method. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Militello, L. G., Hutton, R. J. B., Pliske, R. M., Knight, B. J., & Klein, G. Applied Cognitive Task Analysis (ACTA) Methodology. Navy Personnel Research and Development Center (1997). A detailed description of how to conduct the ACTA method.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Miller, T. E., Copeland, R. R., Phillips, Jennifer K., & McCloskey, M. J. A Cognitive Approach to Developing Planning Tools to Support Air Campaign Planners. Air Force Research Laboratory, Information Directorate. Rome, NY (August 1999). The ACTA method and the Critical Decision Method are used to capture strategies and tactical concerns of air campaign planners for use in the development of a software decision support tool. [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Phillips, J., McDermott, P. L., Thordsen, M., McCloskey, M., & Klein, G. Cognitive Requirements for Small Unit Leaders in Military Operations in Urban Terrain. U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavorial and Social Sciences, Research Report 1728 (1998). An ACTA of platoon leaders of MOUT (Military Operations in Urban Terrain) operations is conducted and used to guide the development of a scenario-based training program. [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Freeman, J. T. & Cohen, M. S. A Critical Decision Analysis of Aspects of Naval Anti-Air Warfare. Cognitive Technologies, Inc., Technical Report 98-2 (1998). The CDM is used to analyze naval anti-air warfare, air strike warfare, and theater ballistic missile defense. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Grassi, C. R. A Task Analysis of Peir Side Ship-Handling for Virtual Environment Ship-Handling Simulator Scenario Development. Master's Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. Monterey, CA (September 2000). The CDM is used with GOMS and portions of the ACTA method to develop training scenarios for use in a ship-handling simulator. [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Hoffman, R. R., Crandall, B., & Shadbolt, N. "Use of the Critical Decision Method to Elicit Expert Knowledge: A Case Study in the Methodology of Cognitive Task Analysis." Human Factors Vol 40.2 (1998): 254-276. Detailed description of the CDM.  

Klein, G. A. The Development of Knowledge Elicitation Methods for Capturing Military Expertise. U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (1996). Presents a number of studies conducted using the CDM, as well as a formal rationale, description, and set of guidelines for conducting the CDM.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Klein, G. A., Calderwood, R., & MacGregor, D. "Critical Decision Method for Eliciting Knowledge."  IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Vol. 19.3 (1989). A detailed description of the CDM.

MacMillan, J., Sefarty, D., Cohen, M., Freeman, J., Klein, G., & Thordsen, M. Critical Decisions in the Advanced Multimodal Watchstation Air Dominance Scenario. U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (2000). The CDM is used to analyze decision making in an air dominance scenario.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Miletello, L. Qualitative Research Methods for Investigation of Adverse Events and Near Misses. Power Point Briefing (23 slides). An overview of the CDM.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Thorsden, M. "A comparison of two tools for cognitive task analysis: Concept mapping and the critical decision method." In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 35^th Annual Meeting (1991). Concept mapping and the critical decision method are compared.

Marsh, C.  "The F-16 Maintenance Skills Tutor."  The Edge: MITRE's Advanced Technology Newsletter Vol 3.1 (1999). The PARI method is used to inform the design of an F-16 maintenance skills tutor.  [View or Download: From Source]

Gott, S. P. Rediscovering Learning: Acquiring Expertise in Real World Problem Solving Tasks. Armstrong Research Laboratory, Report Number AL/HR-TP-1997-0009, Brooks AFB, Texas: April 1998. Results from the PARI method are used to inform a coached apprenticeship practice environment embodied in an intelligent tutor.  [View or Download: Local Copy]

Hall, E. P., Gott, S. P., & Pokorny, R. A. A Procedural Guide to Cognitive Task Analysis: The PARI Methodology. Armstrong Research Laboratory, Brooks AFB, Texas (1995). A detailed description of how to conduct the PARI method.

Redding, R. E. A Standard Procedure for Conducting Cognitive Task Analysis. ERIC Document Reproduction Service (1992). An overview of the skill-based CTA framework.

Redding, R. E., Cannon, J. R., Lierman, B. C., Ryder, J. M., Purcell, J. A., & Seamster, T. L. "The Analysis of Expert Performance in the Redesign of the En Route Air Traffic Control Curriculum."  In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting (1991). The skill-based CTA framework is used to inform a COGNET model of an air traffic control task.   [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Seamster, T. L., Redding, R. E., & Kaempf, G. L. Applied Cognitive Task Analysis in Aviation. Avebury, 1997. The skill-based CTA framework is applied to design and training problems in the commercial aviation domain.

Seamster, T. L., Redding, R. E., & Kaempf, G. L. A Skill-Based Cognitive Task Analysis Framework. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 135-146.

Shute, V., Sugrue, B., & Willis, R. E. "Automating Cognitive Task Analysis." In Cognitive Technologies for Knowledge Assessment Symposium Proceedings, AERA, Chicago, IL: 1997. An overview of the DNA method.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Shute, V. J. & Torreano, L. A. "Formative Evaluation of an Automated Knowledge Elicitation and Organization Tool." In Authoring Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments: Toward Cost-Effective Adaptive, Interactive, and Intelligent Educational Software. T. Murray, S. Blessing, & S. Ainsworth, Eds. Kluwer: 2002. A detailed description of the DNA method. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Shute, V. J., Torreano, L. A., & Willis, R. E.  DNA: Providing the Blueprint for Instruction. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 71-86.

The TKS Home Page. 

Hamilton, F. "Predictive Evaluation Using Task Knowledge Structures."  In Proceedings of CHI '96 (1996). TKS models are used to predict difficulties users will have in using new systems.   [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Hourizi, R. & Johnson, P. "Unmasking Mode Errors: A New Application of Task Knowledge Principles to the Knowledge Gaps in Cockpit Design." Proceedings of Interact '01, The Eighth IFIP Confernece on Human Computer Interaction, Tokyo (2001). TKS is used to re-design an automated system in the commercial aviation domain. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Johnson, H. & Johnson, P. "Task Knowledge Structures: Psychological Basis and Integration into System Design." Acta Psychologica Vol 78 (1991): 3-26. Outlines the psychological basis for TKS and describes how task models can be used throughout the system design process.  [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Johnson, P., Johnson, H., and Hamilton, F. Getting the Knowledge into HCI: Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Task Knowledge Structures. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 201-214.

Keep, J. & Johnson, H. "HCI and Requirements Engineering - Generating Requirements in a Courier Despatch Management System." SIGCHI Vol 29.1 (1997). Participatory design and TKS are used to generate requirements for a courier despatch management system. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy] 

Wild, P. J., Johnson, P., & Johnson, H. "An Hour in the Life: Towards Requirements for Modeling Multiple Task Work." To appear in Proceeding of CHI ‘2003. TKS is used to understand multi-tasking.  [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

SA Technologies Home Page. A company founded by Mica Endsley specializing in Situation Awareness (SA) oriented design.

Endsley, M.  From CTA to System Design: Designing to Support SA. Online Seminar at www.ctaresource.com , delivered September 2002. This online presentation describes GDTA, as well as SA analysis and measurement. [View or Download:  From Source]

Bolstad, C. A. & Endsley, M. R. Information Dissonance, Shared Mental Models, and Shared Displays: An Empirical Evaluation of Information Dominance Techniques. U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Report No AFRL-HE-WP-TR-1999-0213 (1998). Issues regarding team SA (situation awareness), team decision making, and shared mental models are explored in a microworld simulation of a team air defense task. [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Endsley, M. R., Bolte, B., & Jones, D. G. Designing for situation awareness: An approach to human-centered design. London: Taylor & Francis (in press). The new text book on GDTA. Look for it in June 2003.

Endsley, M.R. & Garland, D.J., Eds. Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000. A collection of essays on the analysis and measurement of SA.

Endsley, M. R. "Situation Awareness and Human Error: Designing to Support Human Performance." Proceedings of the High Consequence Systems Surety Conference. Albuquerque, NM: 1999. The role of SA in human error is explored. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Endsley, M. R., Farley, T. C., Jones, W. M., & Midkiff, A. H. Situation Awareness Information Requirements for Commercial Airline Pilots. International Center for Air Transporation, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge, MA: 1998. GDTA is used to analyze the job of the commercial airline pilot. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Endsley, M. R. & Jones, W. M. Situation Awareness Information Dominance & Information Warfare. Endsley Consulting. Belmont, MA: 1997. Team SA is studied with the goal of developing support systems to support information dominance on the battlefield. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Endsley, M. R. & Robertson, M. M. "Training for Situation Awareness." In Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurement. Training for SA is explored in the commercial aviation domain. [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Endsley, M. R. & Rodgers, M. D. Situation Awareness Information Requirements for En Route Air Traffic Control. U.S. Department of Transporation, Federal Aviation Adminstration: 1994. GDTA is used in the air traffic control domain. [View or Download:   Local Copy]

Endsley, M. & Hoffman, R. R. "The Sacagawea Principle." IEEE Intelligient Systems Vol 17.6 (2002). An overview of GDTA. 

Farley, T. C., Hansman, R. J., Endsley, M. R., & Amonlirdviman, K. "The Effects of Shared Information on Pilot-Controller Situation Awareness and Re-Route Negotiation." In Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology. Columbus, Ohio: 1999. GDTA is applied to the air traffic control domain. 

Hanson, M. L., Harper, K. A., Endsley, M., & Rezsonya, L. "Developing Cognitively Congruent HBR Models via SAMPLE: A Case Study in Airline Operations Modeling." In Proceedings of the 2002 Command and Control Research and Technology Program (2002). GDTA is used to provide input to a SAMPLE cognitive model in the airline operations domain.

Chrenk, J., Hutton, R. J.B., Klinger, D. W., & Anastasi, D. "The Cognimeter: Focusing Cognitive Task Analysis in the Cognitive Function Model." In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annaul Meeting (2001). A software tool to support CFM is described.

DuBois, D. A., Shalin, V. L., & Borman, W. C. A Cognitively-Oriented Approach to Task Analysis and Test Development. Office of Naval Research, Contract No. N00014-93-C-0199 (December 1995). An in depth overview of how to conduct the COTA method. [View or Download:  Local Copy]

DuBois, D. A. & Shalin, V. L. Describing Job Expertise Using Cognitively Oriented Task Analysis (COTA). In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 41-56.

Davison, H. Cognitive Task Analysis: Current Research.  Power Point Presentation (46 slides).  Provides an overview of cognitive task analysis techniques, focusing specifically on ACTA and HTA. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Merkelbach, E. J. H. M. & Schraagen, J. M. C. A Framework for the Analysis of Cognitive Tasks. TNO Human Factors Research Institute, Report No TNO-TM 1994 B-13 (1994). Describes a framework for conducting CTA using a combination of Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA), Knowledge Analysis and Documentation System (KADS), and GOMS.

Shepherd, A. Hierarchical Task Analysis. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2000. A text book on HTA.

The ICS Home Page. 

Barnard, P.J. & May, J. "Cognitive Modeling for User Requirements." In Computers, Communication and Usablity: Design issues, research, and methods for integrated services. Ed P.F. Byerley, P.J. Barnard, & J May. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1993. 101-145. An overview of the ICS method is provided.

Barnard, P. J. & May, J. Towards a Theory-Based Form of Cognitive Task Analysis of Broad Scope and Applicability. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 147-164.

Hickman, F. R., Killin, J. L., Land, L., & Mulhall, T. Analysis for Knowledge-Based Systems: A Practical Guide to the Kads Methodology. Ellis Horwood Ltd., 1990. A text book on the KADS method.

Merkelbach, E. J. H. M. & Schraagen, J. M. C. A Framework for the Analysis of Cognitive Tasks. TNO Human Factors Research Institute, Report No TNO-TM 1994 B-13 (1994). Describes a framework for conducting CTA using a combination of Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA), Knowledge Analysis and Documentation System (KADS), and GOMS.

Schreiber, G., Weilinga, B., & Breuker, J., eds. Kads: A Principled Approach to Knowledge-Based System Development. A collection of papers on using KADS in knowledge-based system development.

Blickensderfer, E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Baker, D. P. (2000). Analyzing Knowledge Requirements in Team Tasks, In Schraagen, Chipman, & Shalin, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 431-447.

Cooke, N. Cognitive Task Analysis for Teams. Unpublished briefing, delivered January 2003. This was Nancy Cooke’s briefing at www.ctaresource.com that describes metrics to assess team situation awareness, team decision making, and shared mental models. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Entin, E. E. & Entin, E. B. Measures for Evaluation of Team Processes and Performance in Experiments and Exercises. Aptima Inc. Describes metrics to assess team processes. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Freeman, J. T. & Sefarty, D.  Team Collaboration for Command and Control: A Critical Thinking Model. In Proceedings of the 2002 Command and Control Research and Technology Program. Discusses a framework for measuring, managing, and understanding team critical thinking. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Klein, G. (2000). Cognitive Task Analysis of Teams. In Schraagen, Chipman, & Shalin, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 417-430.

MacMillan, J., Paley, M. J., Sefarty, D., & Levchuk, Y. N.  Designing the Best Team for the Task: A Method that Combines Algorithms, Heuristics, and Expert Judgment. Aptima, Inc. Describes a systematic approach for designing teams that uses a quantitative task structure. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

MacMillan, J., Sefarty, D., Paley, M. J., & Levchuk, Y. N. Designing the Information Space for a Command Center Based on Team Performance Models. Office of Naval Research Manning and Affordability Initiative. Describes how modeling of team information needs and communication patters supported the layout of a command center. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Shope, S. M. & Cooke, N. J. Facility for Cognitive Engineering Research on Team Tasks (CERTT). New Mexico State University, CERTT Laboratory (1998). Describes the design of a lab to support research on team cognition and the develop of evaluations and measures to support this research. The lab’s first microworld simulation of a UAV task is described. [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Diaper, D., Ed. Knowledge Elicitation: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. A collection of papers on various knowledge elicitation techniques by the originators of those techniques.  

Cooke, N. J. "Varieties of Knowledge Elicitation Techniques." International Journal of Human-Computer Studies Vol 41 (1994): 801-849. A comprehensive survey and classification of knowledge elicitation techniques.

Hoffman, R. R., Shadbolt, N. R., Burton, A. M., & Klein, G. "Eliciting Knowledge from Experts: A Methodological Analysis." Organizational Behavioral and Human Decision Processes Vol 62.2 (1995): 129-158. Describes and categorizes a variety of knowledge elicitation techniques, including Think-Aloud, Interviews, Rating and Sorting tasks, and Task Analysis.

Wilson, M. D., Barnard, P.J., Green, T. R. G., & MacLean, A. Knowledge-Based Task Analysis for Human-Computer Systems. 1987. Describes Task Analysis for Knowledge Descriptions (TAKDS), Command Language Grammar, Task Action Grammar, GOMS, User Device Model, CTA, and Decomposition of Mental Activity.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

"Conducting Interviews." Course Notes From Research Methods for Language Study. Offers tips in conducting unstructured and structured interviews.  [View or Download: From Source]

Scott, A. A., Clayton, J. E. & Gibson, E. L. (1991). A Practical Guide to Knowledge Acquisition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. This book is intended to guide the development of an expert system, and provides an entire section on interviewing experts. 

Weiss, S. & Kulikowski, C. (1984). A Practical Guide to Designing Expert Systems. Totowa, NJ: Rowan and Allenheld. This book discusses many techniques about eliciting knowledge from experts, and includes a section on interviewing.  

Roth, E. M., Malsh, N., & Multer, J. Understanding How Train Dispatchers Manage and Control Trains: Results of a Cognitive Task Analysis. U.S. Department of Transporation (2001). Describes how field observations and structured interviews were used to learn about train dispatching.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Wood, L. E.. "Semi-Structured Interviewing for User-Centered Design." interactions Vol 4.2 (1997). Describes structured interviewing techniques similar to those of Contextual Inquiry.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Wood, L. E & Ford, J.M. "Structuring interviews with experts during knowledge elicititation." International Journal of Intelligent Systems: Special Issue on Knowledge Acquisition Vol 8 (1993): 71-90. Describes questions for different phases of the interview that build from concepts to relations and finally to rules.

Schvaneveldt, R. W., Durso, F. T., Goldsmith, T. E., Breen, T. J., Cooke, N. M., Tucker, R. G. & DeMaio, J. C. "Measuring the structure of expertise." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 23 (1985): 699-728. Step listing is described and used to identify concepts critical to air-combat flight maneuvers.

Boose, J.H. Expertise Transfer for Expert System Design. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986. A variety of group interview techniques are discussed, including the Delphi technique and the Crawford Slip Method.

Boy, G. A. "The Group Elicitation Method for Participatory Design and Usability Testing." Interactions (March/April 1997). Presents the Group Elicitation Method (GEM), a brainstorming technique augmented by a decision support system for conducting participatory design and usability testing.  

Grabowski, M., Massey, A. P., & Wallace, W. A.. "Focus groups as a group knowledge elicitation technique."  Knowledge Acquisition Vol 4 (1992): 407-425. Focus group interviews are compared to individual interviews. While both methods produce similar quantities of information, focus groups are found to elicit more original responses.

Krueger, R. A. "Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews." Unpublished Course Notes, University of Minnesota: 2002. Useful notes on the methodology of conducting focus group interviews from the point of view of a social psychology researcher.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

McGraw, K. & Harbison-Briggs, K. Knowledge Acquisition: Principles and Guidelines. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989. Several group interview techniques are discussed, including brainstorming, consensus decision making, the nominal group technique, and computer-facilitated sessions.

Peterson, B., Stine, J. L., & Darken, R. P. "A process and representation for modeling expert navigators."  In Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Computer Generated Forces and Behavioral Representations (2000): 459-470. Describes the knowledge elicitation and knowledge representation of a study of expert navigators. Focus groups were used to elicit knowledge, and an executable cognitive model was used to represent knowledge.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Schweigert, W. A. Research Methods and Statistics for Psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1994. An introductory text on conducting psychology research. Includes chapters on basic statistics, experiment design, and questionnaires.

Sinclair, M. A. "Subjective assessment." In Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology. Ed. J. R. Wilson & E. N. Corlett. London: Taylor & Francis, 1990. Provides a good summary of questionnaire design and analysis.

Johnson L. & Johnson N. "Knowledge elicitation involving teachback interviewing." In Knowledge Elicitation for Expert Systems: A Practical Handbook Ed. A. Kidd. New York: Plenum Press, 1987. 91-108. Describes the teachback technique.

Bentley, R., Hughes, J. A., Randall, D., Rodden, T., Sawyer, P., Shapiro, D., & Sommerville, I. "Ethnographically-informed systems design for air traffic control." In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (1992). An ethnographic study of air traffic controllers is used to inform the design of the user interface to a flight database.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Hughes, J., O'Brien, J., Rodden, T., Rouncefield, M., & Sommerville, I. "Presenting ethnography in the requirements process." Software Engineering Research Group, University of Lancaster, Report No. SE/5/199 (1994). Examines systematic approaches to involve ethnography in the requirements process in the design of interactive systems."  

Hughes, J., King, V., Rodden, T., & Andersen, H. "Moving out from the control room: ethnography in system design." Center for Research in CSCW (Computer Supported Cooperative Work), Lancaster University, Report No. CSCW/9/1994 (1994). Examines the use of ethnography in a number of different system design projects in a variety of domains.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Millen, D. R. "Rapid Ethnography: Time Deepening Strategies for HCI Field Research." In Proceeding on Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, and Techniques (August 2000). Rapid ethnography methods are applied to HCI design.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Patterson, E. S., Woods, D. D., Sarter, N. B., & Watts-Perotti, J. Patterns in Cooperative Cognition. Field observations and computer simulations are used to study medical command and control, air traffic control, and space shuttle mission control.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Roth, E. M & Patterson, E. S. (2000). Using Observational Study as a Tool for Discovery: Uncovering Cognitive and Collaborative Demands and Adaptive Strategies. Presented at the 5^th Conference on Naturalistic Decision Making, in press. Studies of train dispatching and the use of advanced human-system interfaces in a nuclear powerplant illustrate the methods used in conducting and analyzing the results of observational studies.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Roth, E. M. Using Observational Study as a Tool for Discovery: Uncovering Cognitive and Collaborative Demands and Adaptive Strategies. Unpublished briefing, delivered February 2003. This was Emilie Roth’s briefing at www.ctaresource.com describing her experience conducting observational research.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Roth, E. & O'Hara, J. "Integrating Digital and Conventional Human-System Interfaces: Lessons Learned from a Control Room Modernization Program." U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, September 2002. Field observations, interviews, and computer simulation are used to study a recently modernized nuclear control room.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Roth, E. M., Malsh, N., & Multer, J. Understanding How Train Dispatchers Manage and Control Trains: Results of a Cognitive Task Analysis. U.S. Department of Transporation (2001). Describes how field observations and structured interviews were used to learn about train dispatching.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Shuler, D. & Namioka, A., Eds. Participatory Design: Principles and Practices. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993. A collection of papers about design techniques that focus on users, including ethnographic methods.

Woods, D. D. Process-Tracing Methods for the Study of Cognition Outside of the Experimental Psychology Laboratory. In Klein, G. A., Orasanu, J., Calderwood, R., & Zsambok, C. E., Eds. Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods. NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Process tracing techniques applied to Think-Aloud, Critical Incident Analysis, Field Observations, and Field Experimentation.

B, J. & W, B. "Use of models in the interpretation of verbal data." In A. Kidd, Ed. Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems. New York: Plenum Press,1987: 17-43.

Grover, M. D. "A pragmatic knowledge acquisition methodology." In Proceedings of the 8^th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (1983): 436-438.

Shadbolt, N. & Burton, M. "Knowledge elicitation." In J. R. Wilson & E. N. Corlett, Eds. Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1990: 321-345.

Welbank, M. "An overview of knowledge acquisition methods." Interacting with Computers Vol 2 (1990): 83-91.

Woods, D. D. Process-Tracing Methods for the Study of Cognition Outside of the Experimental Psychology Laboratory. In Klein, G. A., Orasanu, J., Calderwood, R., & Zsambok, C. E., Eds. Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods. NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Process tracing techniques applied to Think-Aloud, Critical Incident Analysis, Field Observations, and Field Experimentation.

Belkin, N. J., Brooks, H. M., & Daniels, P. J. "Knowledge elicitation using discourse analysis." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 27 (1987): 127-144.

Olson, J. R. & Biolsi, K. J. "Techniques for representing expert knowledge." In K.A. Ericsson & J. Smith, Eds. Toward a General Theory of Expertise. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 240-285.

Tijerinia, L., Kiger, S., Wierwille, W., Rockwell, T., Kantowitz, B., Bittner, A., Nygren, T.; Myers, C., Tolbert, C., & McCallum, M. Heavy Vehicle Driver Workload Assessment, Task 1: Task Analysis Data and Protocols Review. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (1992). Activity sampling, interviews, and the critical incident technique are used to assess heavy vehicle driver workload.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Conrad, F., Blair, J., & Tracy, E. "Verbal Reports are Data! A Theoretical Approach to Cognitive Interviews." Presents an approach to collecting an analyzing cognitive interview data.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Ericsson, K. A. & Simon, H. A. Protocol Analysis: Revised Edition. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1993. A text book on think-aloud problem solving and protocol analysis.  [View or Download: From Source]

Gordan, T. R., Coovert, M. D., Riddle, D. L, & Miles, D. E. "Classifying C2 Decision Making Jobs Using Cognitive Task Analysis and Verbal Protocol Analysis." In Proceedings of the 6th International Command and Control Research Technology Symposium (2001). CTA and verbal protocol analysis are used to analyze AWACS Weapons Director teams. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Lees, C., Manton, J., & Triggs, T. Protocol Analysis as a Tool in Function and Task Analysis. DSTO Electronics and Surveillance Research Laboratory. Salisbury, South Australia (1999). The kinds of information that protocol analysis can provide that might be useful in function/task analysis are examined.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Woods, D. D. Process-Tracing Methods for the Study of Cognition Outside of the Experimental Psychology Laboratory. In Klein, G. A., Orasanu, J., Calderwood, R., & Zsambok, C. E., Eds. Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods. NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Process tracing techniques applied to Think-Aloud, Critical Incident Analysis, Field Observations, and Field Experimentation.

Wood, L. E. & Ford, J.M. "Structuring interviews with experts during knowledge elcititation." International Journal of Intelligent Systems: Special Issue on Knowledge Acquisition Vol 8 (1993): 71-90. Briefly describes the retrospective/aided recall technique.

Zachary, W. W., Ryder, J. M., & Hicinbothom, J. H. Building Cognitive Task Analyses and Models of a Decision-Making Team in a Complex Real-Time Environment. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 365-384. Describes how the COGNET framework can be used to conduct CTA. The use of retrospective/aided recall to elicit knowledge is discussed.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Olson, J. R. & Reuter, H. H. "Extracting expertise from experts: methods for knowledge acquisition." Expert Systems Vol 4 (1987): 152-168.

Clarke, B. "Knowledge Acquisition for real-time knowledge-based systems." In Proceedings of the First European Workshop on Knowledge Acquisition for Knowledge Based Systems, UK (September 1987).

Ericsson, K. A. & Simon H. A. Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984. A textbook on protocol analysis.

Cordingley, E. S. "Knowledge elicitation techniques for knowledge-based systems." In D. Diaper, Ed. Knowledge Elicitation: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. 89-175.

Cooke, N. J., Shope, S. M., & Kiekel, P. A. Shared-Knowledge and Team Performance: A Cognitive Engineering Approach to Measurement. Air Force Research Laboratory (March 2001). Team decision making processes and team situation awareness issues are explored in a microworld simulation of a team UAV operations task.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Entin, E., Sefarty, D., Elliot, L., & Schiflett, S. G. DMT-Rnet: An Internet-based Infrastructure for Distributed Multidisciplinary Investigations of C2 Performance. Aptima, Inc.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Fahey, R. P., Rowe, A. L., Dunlap, K. L., & deBoom, D. O. Synthetic Task Design: Cognitive Task Analysis of AWACS Weapons Director Teams. U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (July 2001). The critical incident method and other interviewing techniques are used to perform a CTA of AWACS weapons directors. The results are used to inform the design of a microworld simulation of AWACS weapon director team tasks.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Gray, W. D. "Simulated Task Environments: The Role of High-Fidelity Simulations, Scaled Worlds, Synthetic Environments, and Laboratory Tasks in Basic and Applied Cognitive Research." Cogntive Science Quarterly Vol 2 (2002): 205-227.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Hess, S. M., MacMillan, J., Sefarty, D., & Elliot, L. From Cognitive Task Analysis to Simulation: Developing a Synthetic Team Task for AWACS Weapons Directors. Air Force Research Laboratory. A CTA of AWACS weapons directors is performed and used to inform the design of a microworld simulation of a team task for weapons directors.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Stammers, R. B. "Psychological Aspects of Simulator Design and Use." Advances in Nuclear Science and Technology Vol 17 (1986): 117-132.  

MacShapa Software Home Page. MacShapa is a software tool to perform exploratory sequential data analysis..

Fisher, C. & Sanderson, P. "Exploratory Sequential Data Analysis: Exploring Continuous Observational Data." Interactions (March 1996).  

Sanderson, P. M., & Fisher, C. "Exploratory Sequential Data Analysis: Foundations." Human-Computer Interaction Vol 9 (1994): 251-317.

Sanderson, P. M., Scott, J. J., Johnston, T., Mainzer, J., Watanabe, L. M. , & James, J. M. "MacSHAPA and the enterprise of exploratory sequential data analysis (ESDA)." International Journal of Human-Computer Studies Vol 41 (1994): 633-681.

Geiwitz et al. Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems: Conceptual and Empirical Comparisons. Santa Barbara, CA: Anacapa Sciences, 1988. 

Flanagan, J. C. "The critical incident technique." Psychological Bulletin Vol 51.4 (1954): 327-358. The seminal paper on the CIT. 

Black, J. B., Dimarki, E., van Esselstyn, D., & Flanagan, R. "Using a Knowledge Representation Approach to Cognitive Task Analysis." In Proceedings of the 1995 Annual National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). Anaheim, CA: 1995. Field observations and critical incident probes are used in a CTA of the medical domain.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Cohen, M. S. et. al. Rapid Capturing of Battlefield Mental Models. United States Army Research Institute, Fort Leavenworth Field Unit, Kansas (1995). Critical incident interviews and think-aloud analyses are used to capture battlefield mental models.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Woods, D. D. Process-Tracing Methods for the Study of Cognition Outside of the Experimental Psychology Laboratory. In Klein, G. A., Orasanu, J., Calderwood, R., & Zsambok, C. E., Eds. Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods. NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Process tracing techniques applied to Think-Aloud, Critical Incident Analysis, Field Observations, and Field Experimentation.

Leddo, J. & Cohen, M. S. Objective Structure Analysis: A method of Eliciting Expert Knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Army Research Institute, 1988.

Miller, J. E., Patterson, Emily S., & Woods, David D. "Critiquing as a Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) Methodology." In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting. Minneapolis, MN: 2001. 518-522. The critiquing method is described and used to analyze expert assessment of the Ariane 501 rocket launch failure. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Cohen, M. S., Freeman, J. T. & Thompson, B. T. "Critical Thinking Skills in Tactical Decision Making: A Model and A Training Method." In Canon-Bowers, J. & E. Salas , Eds. Decision-Making Under Stress: Implications for Training & Simulation. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Publications, 1998.

Gustafson, D., Shulka, R., Delbecq, A. & Walister, G. (1975). "A comparative Study of the Differences in Subjective Likelihood Estimates Made by Individuals, Interacting Groups, Delphi Groups, and Nominal Groups." Organizational Behavior and Human Performance Vol 9 (1975): 280-291.

Cordingley, E. S. "Knowledge elicitation techniques for knowledge-based systems." In D. Diaper, Ed. Knowledge Elicitation: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. 89-175.

Maulsby, D., Greenberg, S., & Mander, R. "Prototyping an Intelligent Agent through Wizard of Oz." In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems ( May 1993). The Wizard of Oz technique is used to test the design of a teachable agent.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Bradshaw, J. M. & Boose, J. H. "Decision analysis techniques for knowledge acquisition: combining information and preferences using Acquinas and Axotl." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 32 (1990): 121-186. A review of decision analysis techniques and how they have been incorporated in the design of two expert systems.

Fischhoff, B. "Eliciting Knowledge for Analytical Representation." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Vol 19.3 (1989): 448-461. A review of decision analysis techniques.

Keeney, R. L. Decision Analysis: State of the Field. Woodward Clyde Consultants, Tech Report No. 82-2. San Francisco, CA (March 1982). Written for the non-decision analyst, describes what decision analysis is and what it can and cannot do.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Goldstein, W. M. & Hogarth, R. M., Eds. Research on Judgment and Decision Making: Currents, Connections, and Controversies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997. A collection of papers by current researchers in the field of judgment and decision making.

Hart, A. Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems. London: Kogan Page, 1986.

Wright, G. & Bolger, F., Eds. Expertise and Decision Support. New York: Plenum Press, 1992.

Cordingley, E. S. "Knowledge elicitation techniques for knowledge-based systems." In D. Diaper, Ed. Knowledge Elicitation: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. 89-175.

Geiwitz, J., Kornell, J., & McCloskey, B. P. "An Expert System for the Selection of Knowledge Acquisition Techniques." Technical Report 785-2. Santa Barbara, CA: Anacapa Sciences, 1990.

Zachary, W. W., Ryder, J. M., & Purcell, J. A. "A computer based tool to support mental modeling for human-computer interface design." CHI Systems Tech Report No 900831-8908 (August 1990). Describes magnitude estimation, reference ranking, repertory grid, q sort, and other rating and sorting techniques, as well as a software tool to support these techniques.

Zachary, W. W., Ryder, J. M., & Purcell, J. A. "A computer based tool to support mental modeling for human-computer interface design." CHI Systems Tech Report No 900831-8908 (August 1990). Describes a software tool to support magnitude estimation.

The Repertory Grid Knowledge Elicitation Software Tool Home Page.  A software tool to aid in repertory grid analysis.

Bhatia, S. K. & Yao, Q. "A New Approach to Knowledge Acquisition by Repertory Grids." In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (December 1993). Describes a variation of the repertory grid technique.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Boose, J. H. Uses of repertory grid-centered knowledge acquisition tools for knowledge-bases systems. In J. H. Boose & B. R. Gaines, Eds. The Foundations of Knowledge Acquisition . San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1990. 61-84.

Bradshaw, J. M., Ford, K. M., Adams-Webber, J. R., & Boose, J. H. "Beyond the repertory grid: new approaches to constructivist knowledge acquisition tools development." International Journal of Intelligent Systems Vol 8 (1993): 287-333.

Cordingley, E. S. "Knowledge elicitation techniques for knowledge-based systems." In D. Diaper, Ed. Knowledge Elicitation: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. 89-175.

Gaines, B. R. & Shaw M. L. G. "Knowledge acquisition tools based on personal construct theory." Knowledge Engineering Review: Special Issue on Automated Knowledge Acquisition Tools (1992). Describes the repertory grid technique in detail.

Zacharias, G., Illgen, C., Asdigha, M., Yara, J., & Hudlicka, E. "VIEW: Visualization and Interactive Elicitation Workstation--A Tool for Representing the Commander's Mental Model of the Battlefield." ARI Research Note 97-01 (December 1996). Describes the development of a software tool to assist in eliciting and representing commander’s mental models. Techniques used include repertory grid analysis, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analysis.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Zachary, W. W., Ryder, J. M., & Purcell, J. A. "A computer based tool to support mental modeling for human-computer interface design." CHI Systems Tech Report No 900831-8908 (August 1990). Describes a software tool to support the repertory grid technique.

Zachary, W. W., Ryder, J. M., & Purcell, J. A. "A computer based tool to support mental modeling for human-computer interface design." CHI Systems Tech Report No 900831-8908 (August 1990). Describes several sorting procedures, including P Sort.

Zachary, W. W., Ryder, J. M., & Purcell, J. A. "A computer based tool to support mental modeling for human-computer interface design." CHI Systems Tech Report No 900831-8908 (August 1990). Describes several sorting procedures, including P Sort.

Shadbolt, N. & Burton, M. Knowledge elicitation. In J. R. Wilson & E. N. Corlett, Eds. Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1990: 321-345.

Corter, J. E. & Tversky, A. Extended similarity trees. Psychometrika, Vol 51 (1986): 429-451.

Leddo, J. M., Mullin, T. M., Cohen, M. S., Bresnick, T. A., Marvin, F. F., & O'Connor, M. F. Knowledge elicitation: Phase I final report (Volume 1, Technical Report 87-15). Alexandria, VA: Army Research Institute, 1988. Presents a framework for knowledge elicitation and representation based on theories of how experts represent knowledge.

Lewis, S. "Cluster Analysis as a technique to guide interface design." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 35 (1991): 251-265. Describes how hierarchical clustering techniques, which reduce a set of data to a hierarchical set of clusters, may be used to guide interface design.

Zacharias, G., Illgen, C., Asdigha, M., Yara, J., & Hudlicka, E. "VIEW: Visualization and Interactive Elicitation Workstation--A Tool for Representing the Commander's Mental Model of the Battlefield." ARI Research Note 97-01 (December 1996). Describes the development of a software tool to assist in eliciting and representing commander’s mental models. Techniques used include repertory grid analysis, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analysis.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Cooke, N. J. "Predicting judgment time from measures of psychological proximity." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Vol 18 (1992): 640-653.

Cooke, N. M. Durso, F. T., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. "Recall and measures of memory organization." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Vol 12 (1986): 538-549.

Schenkman, B. N. "Perceived Similarities and Preferences for Consumer Electronic Products." Personal and Ubiquitous Computing Vol 6.2 (2002). A sample of 36 people judged the similarity of 20 electronic appliances; multidimensional scaling was used to analyze the results.

Zacharias, G., Illgen, C., Asdigha, M., Yara, J., & Hudlicka, E. "VIEW: Visualization and Interactive Elicitation Workstation--A Tool for Representing the Commander's Mental Model of the Battlefield." ARI Research Note 97-01 (December 1996). Describes the development of a software tool to assist in eliciting and representing commander’s mental models. Techniques used include repertory grid analysis, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analysis.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Geiwitz, J., & Schwartz, D.R. Delco Soldier-Machine Interface: Demonstration and evaluation (Technical Report 714-3). Santa Barbara, CA: Anacapa Sciences, 1987.

Geiwitz, J., Klatsky, R. L. & McCloskey, B. P. Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems: Conceptual and Empirical Comparisons. Santa Barbara, CA: Anacapa Sciences, 1988.

Boose, J. H. Uses of repertory grid-centered knowledge acquisition tools for knowledge-bases systems. In J. H. Boose & B. R. Gaines, Eds. The Foundations of Knowledge Acquisition . San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1990. 61-84.

Cooke, N. M & McDonald, J. E. "The application of psychological scaling techniques to knowledge elicitation for knowledge-based systems." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 26 (1987): 533-550.

Schvaneveldt, R. W., Durso, F. T., Goldsmith, T. E., Breen, T. J., & Cooke, N.M. "Measuring the structure of expertise." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 23 1985: 699-728.

IHMC Concept Map Software Home Page. A software tool for creating and sharing knowledge models represented as concept maps. Also has links to publications, tutorials, and example concept maps.

Carnot, M. J., Dunn, B., & Canas, A. J. Concept Maps vs. Web Pages for Information Searching and Browsing. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.  Internet browsers based on a concept map-based interface were compared to standard page-based browsers for ease in finding information.    [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Coffey, J. W., Hoffman, R. R., Canas, A. J., & Ford, K. M. A Concept Map-Based Knowledge Modeling Approach to Expert Knowledge Sharing. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. The PreSERVe method of knowledge elicitation and a knowledge representation scheme based on concept maps is described in the context of a case study of weather forecasting.   [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Gordon, S.E., Schmierer, K. A., & Gill, R. T. Conceptual graph analysis: Knowledge acquisition for instructional system design. Human Factors Vol 35.3 (1993): 459-481.

Gordon, S. E. & Gill, R. T. Cognitive Task Analysis. In C.E. Zsambok & G. Klein, Eds. Naturalistic Decision Making. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1997. 131-140. Provides an overview of CTA techniques, with brief description of Concept Mapping, COGNET, Conceptual Graph Analysis, and PARI.

Reichert, M. & Dadam, P. A Framework for Dynamic Changes in Workflow Management Systems. Dexa Workshop (1997). An approach to modeling workflow using conceptual graphs is described.   [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Thorsden, M. "A comparison of two tools for cognitive task analysis: Concept mapping and the critical decision method." In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 35^th Annual Meeting (1991). Concept mapping and the critical decision method are compared.

Geiwitz, J., Klatsky, R. L. & McCloskey, B. P. Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems: Conceptual and Empirical Comparisons. Santa Barbara, CA: Anacapa Sciences, 1988.

Diederich, J., Ruhmann, I., & May, M. "KRITON: a knowledge acquisition tool for expert systems." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 26 (1987): 29-40.

Shadbolt, N. & Burton, M. "Knowledge elicitation." In J. R. Wilson & E. N. Corlett, Eds. Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1990: 321-345.

Howard, R. A. & Matheson, J. E. Influence diagrams. In readings on the principles of applications of decision analysis (Vol. 2). Palo Alto, CA: Professional Collection, Strategic Decision Group, 1984.

Byrne, M. D. Cognitive Architecture. An introduction to modeling cognition with Integrated Cognitive Architectures. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Campbell, G. E. & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. The Application of Human Performance Models in the Design and Operation of Complex Systems. Office of Naval Research, SC-21 Science and Technology Manning Affordability Initiative.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Gray, W. D. & Altmann, E. M. Cognitive Modeling and Human-Computer Interaction. In W. Karwowski, Ed. International encyclopedia of ergonomics and human factors (Vol. 1). New York: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 387-391.   [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Pew, R. W. & Mavor, A. S., Eds. Modeling Human and Organizational Behavior: Applications to Military Simulations. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press, 1998.

Polk, T. A. & Seifert, C. M. Cognitive Modeling. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2002.

Ritter, F. E., Baxter, G. D., Jones, G., & Young, R. M. "Supporting Cognitive Models as Users." ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction Vol. 7.2 (2000).   [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

GOMS Model Work Home Page.  GOMS resources at the University of Michigan.  Their goal is to transition GOMS modeling research results to industry.  

Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., & Newell, A. The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. A seminal work in the field of HCI. Introduced the GOMS approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1983.

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. The GOMS Family of Analysis Techniques: Tools for Design and Evaluation. Human-Computer Interaction Institute Technical Report CMU-HCII-94-106 (1994). An overview of the GOMS family of models, including KLM, GOMS, CMN-GOMS, NGOMSL, and CPM-GOMS.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. "Using GOMS for User Interface Design and Evaluation: Which Technique?"  ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction Vol. 3.4 (1996): 287-319. Provides guidance about which GOMS variant to use to meet different design goals.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Nielsen, J. & Phillips, V. L. "Estimating the Relative Usability of Two Interfaces: Heuristic, Formal, and Empirical Methods Compared."  In Proceedings of CHI '93 (April 1993). Heurisitc evaluation, GOMS, and usability testing are compared in an examination of two user interfaces.  

Haunold, P. & Kuhn, W. "A Keystroke Level Analysis of Manual Map Digitizing."  In Proceedings of CHI 1994. Boston, MA: 1994. 337-343. Examines the suitability of the Keystroke Level Model for analyzing manual map digitizing tasks.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. The GOMS Family of Analysis Techniques: Tools for Design and Evaluation. Human-Computer Interaction Institute Technical Report CMU-HCII-94-106 (1994). An overview of the GOMS family of models, including KLM, GOMS, CMN-GOMS, NGOMSL, and CPM-GOMS.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. "Using GOMS for User Interface Design and Evaluation: Which Technique?"  ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction Vol. 3.4 (1996): 287-319. Provides guidance about which GOMS variant to use to meet different design goals.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. The GOMS Family of Analysis Techniques: Tools for Design and Evaluation. Human-Computer Interaction Institute Technical Report CMU-HCII-94-106 (1994). An overview of the GOMS family of models, including KLM, GOMS, CMN-GOMS, NGOMSL, and CPM-GOMS.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. "Using GOMS for User Interface Design and Evaluation: Which Technique?"  ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction Vol. 3.4 (1996): 287-319. Provides guidance about which GOMS variant to use to meet different design goals.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. The GOMS Family of Analysis Techniques: Tools for Design and Evaluation. Human-Computer Interaction Institute Technical Report CMU-HCII-94-106 (1994). An overview of the GOMS family of models, including KLM, GOMS, CMN-GOMS, NGOMSL, and CPM-GOMS.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Kieras, D. E. A Guide to GOMS Model Usability Evaluation using NGOMSL. In The Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction (2nd Edition). North Holland: 1996. Presents the parts of a GOMS model in terms of NGOMSL notation, presents a procedure for constructing GOMS models, and explains how to use a GOMS model evaluation of a design for predicting human performance.   [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Kieras, D. E. "GOMS Modeling of User Interfaces using NGOMSL." In Proceeding of CHI 1994. Presents the NGOMSL methodology for constructing and using GOMS models for use in analytical user interface design evaluation.

Kieras, D. A Guide to GOMS Model Usability Evaluation using GOMSL and GLEAN3. University of Michigan (1999). Presents an executable form of NGOMSL called GOMSL which is processed and executed by a GOMS model simulation tool called GLEAN3. GLEAN3 is based on a simplified version of EPIC.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Kieras, D. E., Wood, S. D., Abotel, K., & Hornof, A. GLEAN: A Computer-Based Tool for Rapid GOMS Model Usability Evaluation of User Interface Designs. In ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (1995). A computer-based tool, GLEAN, that generates quantitative predictions regarding human performance from a supplied GOMS model is described.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Santoro, T.P., Kieras, D.E., & Campbell, G.E. GOMS Modeling Application to Watchstation Design Using the GLEAN Tool. The GLEAN tool is used to support the design of a watchstation interface.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Gray, W. D., John, B. E., & Atwood, M. E. "The Precis of Project Ernestine Or An Overview of a Validation of GOMS." In Proceedings of CHI '92 (May 1992). CPM-GOMS is used to model a telephone operator workstation.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. The GOMS Family of Analysis Techniques: Tools for Design and Evaluation. Human-Computer Interaction Institute Technical Report CMU-HCII-94-106 (1994). An overview of the GOMS family of models, including KLM, GOMS, CMN-GOMS, NGOMSL, and CPM-GOMS.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B. E. & Kieras, D. E. "Using GOMS for User Interface Design and Evaluation: Which Technique?"  ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction Vol. 3.4 (1996): 287-319. Provides guidance about which GOMS variant to use to meet different design goals.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

John, B., Vera, A., Matessa, M., Freed, M., & Remington, R. "Automating CPM-GOMS."  In Proceeding of CHI 2002, Minneapolis, MN: April 2002. A process for automatically generating CPM-GOMS models from a hierarchical task decomposition in Apex is described.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Dr. Kent E. Williams Home Page.  The CAT-HCI software and manuals are available for download.

Baumeister, L. K., John, B. E., & Byrne, Michael D. A Comparison of Tools for Building GOMS Models. In Proceedings of CHI 2000 ( April 2000). QGOMS, CAT-HCI, and GLEAN3 are compared.  

Voigt, J. R. Evaluating a Computerized Aid for Conducting a Cognitive Task Analysis. Master of Science Thesis, University of Central Florida. (2000). CAT-HCI is used to analyze tank command and control.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

Williams, K. E. An Automated Aid for Modeling Human-Computer Interaction. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 165-180.

Byrne, M. D. Cognitive Architecture. An introduction to modeling cognition with Integrated Cognitive Architectures. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

CHI Systems Home Page.  A company founded by Wayne Zachary that developed COGNET.

Ryder, J. M. & Weiland, M. Z. Cognitive Engineering of a New Telephone Operator Workstation Using COGNET. CHI Systems, Inc. A telephone operator workstation is modeled using COGNET.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Weiland, M., Campbell, G., Zachary, W., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. Applications of Cognitive Models in a Combat Information Center. Office of Naval Research, SC-21 Science and Technology Manning Affordability Initiative. COGNET modeling is applied to Combat Information Center operations.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Zachary, W, W., Ryder, J. M., & Hicinbothom, J. H. Cognitive Task Analysis and Modeling of Decision Making in Complex Environments. Presented at the International Ergonomics Association 14th Triennial Congress and Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 44th Annual Meeting (August 2000). COGNET is used to model the job of a telephone operator.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Zachary, W. W.; Ryder, J. M., & Hicinbothom, J. H. "Building Cognitive Task Analyses and Models of a Decision-Making Team in a Complex Real-Time Environment." In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. 365-384. Describes how the COGNET framework can be used to conduct CTA. The use of retrospective/aided recall to elicit knowledge is discussed.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

COGENT Home Page. 

Cooper, R., Yule, P., Fox, J. & Sutton, D. COGENT: An environment for the development of cognitive models. In Schmid, U., Krems, J. F., & Wysotzki, F., Eds. A Cognitive Science Approach to Reasoning, Learning and Discovery. Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Publishers, 1998: 55-82.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Cooper, R. & Fox, J. Learning to Make Decisions Under Uncertainty: The Contribution of Qualitative Reasoning. In Scholz, R. W. & Zimmer, A. C., Eds. Qualitative Aspects of Decision Making. Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Publishers, 1997: 83-106.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

ACT-R Home Page. 

Anderson, J. R. & Lebiere, C. The Atomic Components of Thought. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998. The text book on ACT-R.

Byrne, M. D. "ACT-R/PM and Menu Selection: Applying a Cognitive Architecture to HCI." International Journal of Human-Computer Studies Vol 55 (2001). ACT-R/PM is used to model menu selection.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Gray, W. D., Schoelles, M. J., & Fu, W. "Modeling a Continuous Dynamic Task."  In N. Taatgen & J. Aasman, Eds. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Cognitive Modelings (2000): 158-168. ACT-R/PM is used to explain differences between two continuous dynamic tasks in a scientific study.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Schollen, M. J. & Gray, W. D. "Argus Prime: Modeling Emergent Microstrategies in a Complex, Simulated Task Environment." In N. Taatgen & J. Aasman, Eds. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Cognitive Modelings (2000): 260-270. ACT-R/PM is used to model performance in a microworld simulation of a submarine sonar analysis task.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Salvucci, D. D. "Modeling Driver Distraction from Cognitive Tasks." In Proceeding of the Cognitive Science Society (2001). ACT-R is used to model driving while concurrently performing other cognitive tasks.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Soar Home Page. 

Conati, C. & Lehman, J. F. EFH-Soar: Modeling Education in Highly Interactive Microworlds. In Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993. Soar is used to model learning in a microworld that explores and teaches electrostatics.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Darkow, D. J. & Marshak, W. P. Low-Level Cognitive Modeling of Aircrew Function Using the SOAR Artificial Intelligence Architecture. U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Crew System Interface Division, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio (April 1998). Soar is used to model aircrew functions.  [View or Download:  Local Copy]

David Kieras’s EPIC Home Page. 

The Brain, Cognition, and Action Lab at the University of Michigan Home Page.  Information about the empirical and theoretical work in developing a theory of cognition, including a description of EPIC.

Kieras, D. E., Wood, S. D., & Meyer, D. E. "Predictive Engineering Models Based on the EPIC Architecture for a Multimodel High-Performance Human-Computer Interaction Task." ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction Vol 4 (1997): 230-275. EPIC is used to model a telephone operator task.  [View or Download:  From Source / Local Copy]

Kieras, D. E. & Meyer, D. E. The Role of Cognitive Task Analysis in the Application of Predictive Models of Human Performance. In Chipman, Shalin & Schraagen, Eds. Cognitive Task Analysis. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000. EPIC is used to model and predict human performance.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Apex Home Page.  

John, B., Vera, A., Matessa, M., Freed, M., & Remington, R. "Automating CPM-GOMS."  In Proceeding of CHI 2002, Minneapolis, MN: April 2002. A process for automatically generating CPM-GOMS models from a hierarchical task decomposition in Apex is described.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Freed, M. A. & Remington, R. W. "Making Human-Machine System Simulation a Practical Engineering Tool: An Apex Overview." In Proceedings of the 2000 International Conference on Cognitive Modeling. Groningen, Holland: 2000. The use of Apex to predict design-relevant aspects of human performance is discussed.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Freed, M. A., Shaflo, M. G., & Remington, R. W. "Employing simulation to evaluate designs: The Apex approach." In Proceedings of the 2000 International Conference on Cognitive Modeling. Groningen, Holland: 2000. The use of Apex simulation to evaluate the usability of proposed interfaces is discussed.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

MIDAS Home Page.  

Corker, K., Pisanich, G., & Bunzo, M. A Cognitive System Model for Human/Automation Dynamics in Airspace Management. NASA Ames Research Center. The use of MIDAS to predict the consequences of the interactions between humans and automation in the Air Traffic Management Domain is discussed. [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Smith, B. R. & Tyler, S. W. The Design and Application of MIDAS: A Constructive Simulation for Human-System Analysis. Presented at the 2nd Simulation Technology & Training (SIMTECT) Conference (March 1997). An overview of MIDAS.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Zacharias, G. L., Miao, A. X., Illgen, C., & Yara, J. M. SAMPLE: Situation Awareness Model for Pilot-in-the-Loop Evaluation. Final Report R95192, Charles River Analytics. Cambridge, MA: December 1995. SAMPLE is used to evaluate subsystems and tactics for enhancing pilot situation awareness.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Hanson, M. L., Harper, K. A., Endsley, M., & Rezsonya, L. "Developing Cognitively Congruent HBR Models via SAMPLE: A Case Study in Airline Operations Modeling." In Proceedings of the 2002 Command and Control Research and Technology Program (2002). GDTA is used to provide input to a SAMPLE cognitive model in the airline operations domain.

BBN’s OMAR Project Home Page. 

D-OMAR Home Page. 

Deutsch, S. E., Cramer, N., Keith, G., & Freeman, B. The Distributed Operator Model Architecture. United States Air Force Research Laboratory (February 1999). An overview of D-OMAR.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]

Deutsch, S. & Pew, R. Modeling Human Error in a Real-World Teamwork Environment. BBN Technologies, Cambridge, MA. D-OMAR is used to model and predict human error in air tax operations.  [View or Download: From Source / Local Copy]